Wallia was responsible for their settlement in Roman territory . In September of 415, the Visigoth monarch Athaulf was stabbed to death and replaced by Singeric, a cruel and brief-reigning usurper.
Singeric was also slain, after only a week, and an election was held to find a legitimate successor. The Visigoths chose a little-known warrior, Wallia, who was selected because of his desire to have nothing to do with Rome, ironic given his subsequent actions.
Wallia first restored Galla Placidia, Athaulf ’s Roman widow, to her rightful position of respect within the Visigoth community , making up for the harsh treatment meted out to her by Singeric. The most pressing problem, however, was securing the site of permanent Visigothic settlement.
Spain, their current home, was overcrowded and blockaded by the Roman navy . When ships designed to carry the Visigoths to Africa were wrecked in a storm, Wallia looked northward to Gaul and began negotiations with the Roman government, resulting in a treaty in 416 between Wallia and Constantius III.
The Visigoths pledged to serve as clients or federates of Rome, which meant making war upon the Vandals, Suebi, and Alans in Spain. In return the Visigoths received massive amounts of badly needed corn and, ultimately, permission to take up residence in Gallia Aquitania and large sections of Gallia Narbonensis as well.
Over the next year, Wallia waged relentless war upon the barbarians in Spain and was so successful that by 418 the Visigoths were able to move into Gaul, according to their agreement with the Romans. This was Wallia’s legacy, for he died in 418. He was succeeded by Theodoric I, a grandson of Alaric.
Showing posts with label W. Show all posts
Showing posts with label W. Show all posts
Antonine Wall
The wall was made of turf, resting on a cobbled base, but lacked the sophistication or complexity of Hadrian’s creation. The wall was only 14 feet wide, with a rampart and small wooden forts located at intervals along its length. A large ditch was dug in front of it, and a road to the interior of the province lay behind it.
Only one road actually went through the wall, and was probably used by the Legions for any advance into wild Caledonia beyond. The Antonine Wall was constructed by the II, VI and XX legions, under the supervision of Governor Lollius Urbicus, in 142 C.E., some 20 years after work had begun on Hadrian’s defenses.
Occupation of the wall continued from 142 to 184–185. From the start, the wall was impractical because of the pressures from the peoples to the north. Any temporary evacuation to suppress provincial uprisings necessitated the virtual destruction of the turf to avoid capture.
In 180 C.E., the wall was destroyed by the Caledonians, leading to the arrival of General Ulpius Marcellus in Britain. It was ultimately decided that the defense was a luxury the province could not afford. Roman troops were withdrawn, and the wall became a monument to Rome’s declining strength.
Aurelian Wall
The Juthungine War in Italy in 270 had demonstrated the vulnerability of the city, so construction was begun on the wall with the cooperation of the Senate and the associations of workers and artisans in Rome. Because of the crises and internal threats of the time no Legions were available, so virtually the entire wall was built by civilians.
The Aurelian Wall was not strong enough to withstand a protracted siege, as inconceivable as that must have been to the Romans, but was built to repulse a sudden barbarian onslaught. It was 12 miles long, 12 feet wide and 20 feet high, intertwined with other, older structures. It had 18 gates and 381 rectangular towers, interspersed to provide adequate observation.
Changes were made by Emperor Maxentius (c. 306), who added to its height by installing galleries. A ditch was also initiated when the Magister Militum, Stilicho (c. 401–403) made repairs, followed by similar activities by Valentinian III (c. 442) and post-imperial rulers.
Hadrian Wall
Emperor Hadrian ordered its construction in 122 C.E., and work was begun by Platorius Nepos, governor of Britain, who completed it around 126. The wall extended some 73 miles (80 Roman miles) from Wallsend (Segedunum) to Bowness-on-Solway (or the Solway Firth). It was intended not as a formidable bastion but as a base from which Rome’s presence could be maintained.
Roman troops, mainly auxiliaries, manned its turrets and were to fight any large enemy force in the field while keeping watch on the frontier. In the event of a direct assault, the defenses were only adequate, perhaps explaining the collapse of Roman power in Britain from time to time.
The original plans were probably drawn by Hadrian. The barrier was to extend some 70 miles and be made mostly of stone, 10 feet thick, while the rest would be constructed of turf, 20 feet thick.
The turf wall was completed, but the stone sections had only just begun when the plan was extended several miles to ensure that the barrier covered the area from sea to sea. Further, the stone portions were to be only 8 feet thick, instead of 10, and approximately 20 feet in height; the turf portions, 13 feet high.
Forts were distanced some 5 miles from each other, with so-called milecastles spread out every Roman mile, connected by watchtowers. Two ditches were dug. The one in front was approximately 30 feet wide and 15 feet deep, designed for defense and V-shaped.
The ditch behind the wall has caused considerable archaeological debate. Called the Vallum (trench), it was straight and flat-bottomed, 20 feet wide, 10 feet deep, and 10 feet across at the bottom, fortified on both sides by earthen walls (but then filled in). Scholars have speculated that it was once used for some other, nonmilitary purpose.
Until the construction of the Antonine Wall in 142, Hadrian’s Wall was the only frontier marker in Britain. With the Antonine Wall in the north, its importance decreased briefly until 180, when the Antonine Wall was destroyed. In 196–197, Clodius Albinus took with him every available soldier in Britain for his bid for the throne, thus allowing the wall to be ruined.
Septimius Severus repaired it from 205 to 207. Peace was maintained until the late third century C.E., when the chaotic situation in Roman Britain following the deaths of the usurpers Carausius and Allectus brought the Picts down from Caledonia.
Constantius I launched a restorative campaign but throughout the fourth century barbarian inroads put pressure upon the wall as Roman influence diminished. More invasions poured over the wall, only to be repulsed by Count Flavius Theodosius in 369. The last garrison on the wall withdrew around 400 as the barrier became a monument to Rome’s past.
Status of Women
The subservient condition of women in early Roman society was maintained by the nearly all-encompassing right enjoyed by husbands and fathers within the paterfamilias. According to this dominating patriarchal system, women were excluded from all forms of public life and remained in a kind of legal servitude to their husbands, fathers or nearest male relative.
In general terms, the Roman wife in the Republic existed in manu, meaning that she was subject to the authority (manus) wielded by her husband over her. Manus declined in practice toward the end of the Republic and women began to retain definite rights regarding property and status.
However, women were still considered under the patria potestas of their fathers. The traditional separation of property ownership between husband and wife was altered considerably by the development of the dos (dowry), which made it possible for the wife to be returned the dowry at the end of a marriage.
Outside of marriage, women endured many social, legal, and political handicaps, beginning from birth. A girl born to a Roman was greeted with mourning, and it was not uncommon for a baby girl to be left to die from exposure, much as the Romans commonly put to death any infants with deformities, or severe mental illness.
Growing up, a young girl was entirely under the power of her father, remaining so until he was able to find her a suitable husband. In some cases, a patriarch might even sell daughters into slavery. As noted, marriage in manu meant a form of legal subjugation to husbands, and the wife held no legal control or claim over her children.
For various reasons, the position of women improved gradually during the centuries of the empire. One cause was the established acceptance of the dowry system, which provided greater independence for women in marriage.
Another was the tightening of the laws under Augustus concerning divorce and adultery that discouraged husbands from taking marriage vows too lightly. Finally , women, through determination and patience, created for themselves a better position in the Roman world.
Life for lower-class women was quite different from that of women of the upper classes and nobility. It was marked by a certain stultification, with the days of the peasant women cast in virtual stone from birth to death, in much the same way as that of her male counterpart.
Few details are known about the work and habits of lower-class women, but it is acknowledged that they were engaged in various professions, such as textile production.
Evidence for the involvement of women in industries is found in the remains of Pompeii. We also know little about the daily lives of middle-class women, although their days were certainly spent in more comfort than those of the poorer women of Rome.
The place of wealthy women in the empire was still handicapped by legal and social restrictions, including the inability to vote or participate openly in government, and by other traditional impediments in marriage and divorce. Nevertheless, women could exercise much independence and also political and cultural influence.
Their position was assisted by the largely self-enclosed upper classes. The wealthy intermarried and knew each other, making it easier for women to play a role in political affairs by assisting husbands with their clients and the maintenance of the domus and villa.
Young girls of the upper classes were also frequently given an education equal to boys’, and there are a number of examples of women becoming notable writers, poets, and artists. One of the best known was Sulpicia, wife of Calenus, who was praised by the poet Martial.
Equally, Roman history is replete with women who came to wield great power and influence and who were of great importance in the administration of government. Among these remarkable women were Eudoxia, Galla Placidia, and Theodora, wife of the sixth-century emperor Justinian.
Writing Instruments and Materials
As an exceptionally literate and literary people, the Romans relied on a wide variety of writing materials and instruments. There were two chief means of writing: pen and ink on parchment and papyrus or by a stylus on a waxed tablet.
The stylus (pl. styli) was made of bronze, bone, or iron, with a sharpened, pointed end for writing. The other end was flattened to serve as a counter weight, but it had the added practical value of serving to smooth out the excess wax that developed in the process of scratching the waxed tablet. Styli were often decorated. The pen for writing upon parchment of papyrus was a type of pen made of reed or bronze.
The tip of the pen had a split nub. Ink was made of a mixture of carbon black, gum, and water. It was held in inkpots made of samian, bronze, and other pottery forms. They were crafted with a hidden lip to prevent easy spills and a small hole in the top where the pen could be dipped with ease.
The two main writing materials were papyrus and vellum. Papyrus was certainly the most common writing material in the ancient world, originating in Egypt and eventually adopted by the Romans around the third century B.C.E.
Made from the pith of a water plant that grew along the banks of the Nile, papyrus was sold in rolls of 33 feet. Typical papyrus sheets were about 16 inches wide and 9 inches high.
Vellum (vellus, from skin or hide) was made from the skins of cattle, goats, and sheep that was scraped, rubbed with pumice, and then finished with alum. It was later termed parchment, from the city of Pergamum, which was the best-known center of vellum manufacturing. Over time, vellum, or parchment, replaced papyrus as the writing material of choice.
To use, the papyrus roll (volumen) was unrolled from the right and rolled up from the left. Once the scroll had been used, it was then rewound. Sometimes, the end of the scroll was attached to a wooden roller (umbilicus) with knobs.
It was customary for the title of a book or document to be placed at the end of the scroll, as this was the part that was least exposed on a regular basis and was most likely to survive the passage of time.
Scrolls housed in libraries were organized into pigeon holes and were identified by a hanging label, the titulus (pl. tituli). Additionally , important scrolls were rendered official by the attachment of imperial or other types of seals.
One of the most common ways of protecting seals for perpetuity was to enclose them in seal boxes, normally made of bronze. The box had a hinged lid, and wax was poured into the depression of the box. The wax was then stamped by means of an official seal or by a seal ring.
Along with scrolls, papyrus and parchment were used in book form. Called a codex, it dates from around the first century C.E. and was made from eight folded sheets of papyrus or parchment, creating a “book” of 16 pages.
The pages were then stitched together at the spine and bound between wooden boards. Slowly growing into popular usage, the codex replaced the scroll in the fourth century .
Important documents, such as business transactions, were written and preserved on waxed tablets. Normally, such a tablet was a recessed piece of wood filled with beeswax.
Each tablet was then bound into a set by leather thongs or rings threaded through hinge holes in the outer edge. Two tablets bound together formed a diptych; three bound tablets formed a triptych, creating four or six pages of writing space.
The first or outer page was left unwaxed; pages two and three were waxed; page four was either waxed or plain, and sometimes there was a groove down the middle of the page; page five was waxed and always contained a summary of the information on the other pages; page six was plain.
Page four was used for the placement of signatures by witnesses, written either in ink or inscribed in wax. Seal impressions were then added into the groove running the length of the page. Writing was inscribed in the wax by use of a stylus.
The stylus (pl. styli) was made of bronze, bone, or iron, with a sharpened, pointed end for writing. The other end was flattened to serve as a counter weight, but it had the added practical value of serving to smooth out the excess wax that developed in the process of scratching the waxed tablet. Styli were often decorated. The pen for writing upon parchment of papyrus was a type of pen made of reed or bronze.
The tip of the pen had a split nub. Ink was made of a mixture of carbon black, gum, and water. It was held in inkpots made of samian, bronze, and other pottery forms. They were crafted with a hidden lip to prevent easy spills and a small hole in the top where the pen could be dipped with ease.
The two main writing materials were papyrus and vellum. Papyrus was certainly the most common writing material in the ancient world, originating in Egypt and eventually adopted by the Romans around the third century B.C.E.
Made from the pith of a water plant that grew along the banks of the Nile, papyrus was sold in rolls of 33 feet. Typical papyrus sheets were about 16 inches wide and 9 inches high.
Vellum (vellus, from skin or hide) was made from the skins of cattle, goats, and sheep that was scraped, rubbed with pumice, and then finished with alum. It was later termed parchment, from the city of Pergamum, which was the best-known center of vellum manufacturing. Over time, vellum, or parchment, replaced papyrus as the writing material of choice.
To use, the papyrus roll (volumen) was unrolled from the right and rolled up from the left. Once the scroll had been used, it was then rewound. Sometimes, the end of the scroll was attached to a wooden roller (umbilicus) with knobs.
It was customary for the title of a book or document to be placed at the end of the scroll, as this was the part that was least exposed on a regular basis and was most likely to survive the passage of time.
Scrolls housed in libraries were organized into pigeon holes and were identified by a hanging label, the titulus (pl. tituli). Additionally , important scrolls were rendered official by the attachment of imperial or other types of seals.
One of the most common ways of protecting seals for perpetuity was to enclose them in seal boxes, normally made of bronze. The box had a hinged lid, and wax was poured into the depression of the box. The wax was then stamped by means of an official seal or by a seal ring.
Along with scrolls, papyrus and parchment were used in book form. Called a codex, it dates from around the first century C.E. and was made from eight folded sheets of papyrus or parchment, creating a “book” of 16 pages.
The pages were then stitched together at the spine and bound between wooden boards. Slowly growing into popular usage, the codex replaced the scroll in the fourth century .
Important documents, such as business transactions, were written and preserved on waxed tablets. Normally, such a tablet was a recessed piece of wood filled with beeswax.
Each tablet was then bound into a set by leather thongs or rings threaded through hinge holes in the outer edge. Two tablets bound together formed a diptych; three bound tablets formed a triptych, creating four or six pages of writing space.
The first or outer page was left unwaxed; pages two and three were waxed; page four was either waxed or plain, and sometimes there was a groove down the middle of the page; page five was waxed and always contained a summary of the information on the other pages; page six was plain.
Page four was used for the placement of signatures by witnesses, written either in ink or inscribed in wax. Seal impressions were then added into the groove running the length of the page. Writing was inscribed in the wax by use of a stylus.
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